A variety of microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, can cause disease. Microbial cells are distinct from the cells of animals and plants—which are unable to live alone in nature, existing only as parts of multicellular organisms. Microbial cells can be pathogenic or non-pathogenic, depending, in part, on the microorganism and the status of the host. For example, in an immunocompromised host, a normally harmless bacterium can become a pathogen. Entry into host cells is critical for the survival of bacterial pathogens that replicate in an intracellular milieu. For organisms that replicate at extracellular sites, the significance of bacterial entry into host cells is less well defined.
Drug resistance remains an obstacle in the ongoing effort to fight infection. For example, penicillin was effective in treating Staphylococcus aureus, until the bacterium became resistant. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, new antibiotics, such as vancomycin and methicillin, were developed; these successfully cured S. aureus infections. However, methicillin-resistant strains of S. aureus evolved in the 1970s, and have been plaguing hospitals worldwide ever since. More recently, vancomycin-resistant strains of S. aureus have surfaced.
With the increasing threat of resistance to antimicrobial drugs and the emergence of new infectious diseases, there exists a continuing need for novel therapeutic compounds. Therapeutics that act on the host, not the pathogen, are desirable, because they do not encourage pathogenic resistance. In particular, drugs that act on the host via the innate immune system provide a promising source of therapeutics.
Host defense against microorganisms begins with the epithelial barriers of the body and the innate immune system, and culminates in the induction of the adaptive immune response. The host innate immune response encompasses a set of highly-conserved mechanisms that recognize and counter microbial infections. Elements of innate immunity are continuously maintained at low levels, and are activated very rapidly when stimulated. The innate immune response begins with events that occur immediately after exposure to a microbial pathogen. Events associated with adaptive immunity, such as rearrangement of immunoglobulin receptor genes, are not considered part of the innate response.
There is evidence to indicate that innate responses are instrumental in controlling most infections, and also contribute to inflammatory responses. Inflammatory responses triggered by infection are known to be central components of disease pathogenesis. The importance of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the innate immune response has also been well characterized. The mammalian family of TLRs recognizes conserved molecules, many of which are found on the surfaces of, or are released by, microbial pathogens. There are numerous other mechanisms, less well characterized, that initiate and/or contribute to the host innate defense.
The innate immune system provides a range of protective mechanisms, including epithelial-barrier function and secretion of cytokines and chemokines. To date, four families of chemokines have been categorized, according to the number of conserved N-terminal cysteine motifs: C, CC, CXC, and CX3C, where X is a non-conserved amino acid residue. The CXC chemokines are known to be chemotactic for cells bearing the CXCR3 receptor, including monocytes, activated T cells (Th1), and NK cells. Primary human airway epithelial cells, and the cell line 16-HBE, constitutively express the CXCR3 receptor and its ligands, IP-10, 1-TAC, and MIG (Kelsen et al., The chemokine receptor CXCR3 and its splice variant are expressed in human airway epithelial cells, Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol., 287:L584, 2004). Furthermore, CXCR3 ligands induce chemotactic responses and actin reorganization in 16-HBE cells (Kelsen et al., The chemokine receptor CXCR3 and its splice variant are expressed in human airway epithelial cells, Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol., 287:L584, 2004).
Further, the type II transmembrane serine protease dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPPIV), also known as CD26 or adenosine deaminase binding protein, is a major regulator of various physiological processes including immune functions. CD26/DPPIV is a 110-kD cell surface glycoprotein that is mainly expressed on mature thymocytes, activated T-cells, B-cells, NK-cells, macrophages, and epithelial cells. It has at least two functions, a signal transduction function and a proteolytic function (Morimoto C, Schlossman S F. The structure and function of CD26 in the T-cell immune response. Immunol. Review. 1998, 161: 55-70.). One of its cellular roles involves modulation of chemokine activity by cleaving dipeptides from the chemokine N-terminus. The modulation of the NH2 termini of chemokines is of great importance not only for binding to their receptors and the following reactions but also for altering the receptor specificity of the processed chemokine. DPPIV activity has been associated with a number of immune-related conditions.